Bajo la dirección de los califas omeyas, el entonces joven mundo musulmán llegó a su máxima expansión territorial y a las mayores cotas de cultura y creatividad hasta la época. Fue, sin embargo, un imperio altamente inestable, y en el que el poder del califa estuvo constantemente cuestionado por facciones rebeldes. En unos cien años, entre 644 y 759, reinaron hasta quince califas, de los cuales seis acabaron asesinados. Hubo tres grandes guerras civiles y más de diez levantamientos generalizados.
Los omeyas eran la familia que descendía de Umayyad (Omeya). Éste compartía tatarabuelo con Mahoma, que era de la familia de los hashimitas. Como buenas familias pertenecientes a la misma tribu -los Quraish-, y cercanas al poder, los omeyas y los hashimitas se llevaban a matar. De hecho, los omeyas fueron los principales opositores a la nueva religión musulmana, hasta que Mahoma les sometió y se convirtieron en 630.
El primer califa omeya fue Utmán, elegido en 644 por la comunidad de líderes tribales (shura) según la tradición de los Quraish, al haber sido uno de los primeros convertidos al Islam, con la oposición de toda su familia. Siendo califa, sin embargo, dio los primeros pasos hacia la dinastización, dando prioridad a los omeyas para ocupar cargos de gobernador. Su gobierno próspero y de gran libertad política y religiosa dio pie a las primeras intrigas, instigadas por rencillas tribales, enemigos personales del califa y potencias extranjeras temerosas de la expansión islámica -Utmán triplicó la extensión del califato-. Pero sobre todo por Alí, también discípulo del profeta, que negaba la validez de las decisiones de la shura al defender que Mahoma le había designado personalmente su sucesor antes de morir. Una revuelta aparecida en Egipto terminó con el asesinato del califa en 656.
Sunitas, chiítas y jariyitas
Oficialmente, Alí fue proclamado califa por las familias de Medina. Sin embargo, Moavia, gobernador de Siria y primo de Utmán, acusó a Alí de haber causado su asesinato y de no hacer nada por condenar a los culpables. Tras apoyar, pero no participar, en la rebelión que lideró Aisha, viuda de Mahoma, que fracasó, organizó su poderoso ejército sirio y se enfrentó a Alí en Siffin. Hubo un empate en la batalla, y Alí negoció con Moavia una tregua -el arbitraje de Adroj (658)-, bajo la cual ambos adversarios mantendrían su posición anterior. Esto le valió que una fracción de los partidarios de Alí, pertenecientes a las tribus de Janifa y Tamin, le consideraran un traidor y se escindieran, bajo el nombre de jariyitas y el lema "no hay más norma que la de Dios", defendiendo que el califa no es quién para decidir el reparto de poder en el mundo. Alí no pudo acabar con todos los rebeldes en el motín, y terminaron asesinándole tres años después.
Moavia, que ya se había autoproclamado califa en 660, se apresuró hasta la capital, Kufa, con su reorganizado ejército desde Damasco, a hacerse con el título. El hijo primogénito de Alí, Hasán, al no contar con fuerzas suficientes, huyó a Medina y le dejó el trono libre a Moavia. Su hermano Husein intentó recuperar los derechos al trono, pero fue derrotado y muerto en Kerbala en 680. A su muerte a principios de ese mismo año, el califa Moavia había creado oficialmente la dinastía omeya, al obligar a los nobles a reconocer a su hijo Yazid como heredero. Esto le permitió consolidar el poder califal, pero también hacerse muchos enemigos que dieron lugar a numerosos enfrentamientos por la sucesión.
Desde este momento, la autoridad estuvo para siempre dividida en el mundo islámico. Frente a la ortodoxia musulmana, o sunismo, los derrotados seguidores de Husein constituyeron la secta chiíta, que volvería a la lucha repetidas veces, especialmente en Arabia e Irak, hasta ser un elemento clave en la caída de la dinastía omeya. Básicamente, los chiítas no reconocían la autoridad omeya, y en su lugar dieron el título de imán, o líder espiritual -para diferenciarlo del más mundano título de califa- a los sucesores de Alí. Siglos más tarde, un imán moriría sin descendencia, lo que provocaría la escisión del chiísmo en sub-sectas rivales entre sí.
Por otra parte, los jariyitas formarían una facción autodeclarada la defensora de la pureza islámica. Esta secta, hoy en día casi desaparecida, defendía que el califa no debía ser designado hereditariamente, sino que su elección debía emanar de la comunidad. Tras asesinar a Alí, constituyeron otro importante centro de oposición contra los omeyas, causando varias revueltas locales especialmente entre los bereberes del recién conquistado Magreb, en zonas de la alta Mesopotamia e Irak y Arabia del Norte, aunque el chiísmo alcanzó dimensiones mayores.
Califa en lugar del califa
Yazid murió en 683 a mitad del asedio de la Meca, tratando de someter a Abdulá ibn Zubair, que había apoyado a Husein y a su muerte se autoproclamó califa en Arabia y Egipto. Abdulá produjo fuertes dolores de cabeza a los califas de Damasco, ya que controlaba el principal lugar de peregrinación islámico. Para rivalizar con él, los omeyas construyeron la Mezquita de la Roca de Jerusalén. La existencia de los dos califas se prolongó diez años, ya que una de las dos principales tribus sirias, los Qaisíes, le apoyó contra la de los Kalbíes, aliada de Damasco. La lucha entre estas dos tribus significaría una larga guerra civil, a la que se unió una tercera facción, la del rebelde al-Moktar, que se había hecho fuerte en Irak y defendía los derechos de otro descendiente de Alí -Mohamed ibn al-Hanafiya-, sin su consentimiento.
El nuevo califa de Damasco, al-Malik, decidió esperar a que las dos facciones rebeldes se destruyeran entre sí en lugar de atacar abiertamente. Finalmente al-Moktar fue derrotado en Kufa por Abdulá en 687. Fue entonces el momento de atacar a su debilitado ejército, que cayó en la Meca cinco años después, tras un durísimo asedio que destruyó el Lugar Santo de la Kaaba. Abdulá fue decapitado, y su cuerpo expuesto para escarmiento de rebeldes. El nuevo soberano de todo el mundo islámico fue de centralización y paz interna. Gracias al gobernador de Irak y su lugarteniente personal, al-Hajjaj ibn Yosef, ninguna revuelta tuvo éxito durante esos años. Esto le permitió proseguir con las conquistas y llegar a la máxima expansión del imperio, desde España hasta la India.
Cuando gobernaron los hijos del gran al-Malik, menos autoritarios, los rebeldes volvieron a la carga. Al heredar un imperio tan grande y heterogéneo, y en el que los árabes gozaban de privilegios y exenciones fiscales sobre los extranjeros, fue cada vez más difícil garantizar la cohesión. Aunque uno de los soberanos, Omar, intentó abolir esta diferenciación, la consecuente bajada de impuestos se volvió insostenible, y la vuelta a la subida de impuestos llevó a revueltas generalizadas, sobre todo en la Transoxiana en 734. Para agudizar los problemas, el califa Hisam sufrió derrotas en todos los confines del imperio (Tours, Samarkanda, Akroinon, etc.), y cada vez más rebeliones de descontento surgían en un territorio imposible de controlar: los chiítas de Sayid en Irak, los bereberes en el Norte de África -Marruecos y España se disgregaron del califato en 740-, los jariyitas en Irán, y los feudos de las conflictivas tribus sirias desangrándose entre sí. Mientras, la decadencia y las intrigas de palacio iban a más: los miembros de la familia, junto con generales y gobernadores, luchaban por el poder -el borracho y corrupto califa al-Walid II fue asesinado por su propio primo, Yazid, que no fue más brillante que él-.
Los verdugos abásidas
El fin de los omeyas vino de mano de la familia de los Abásidas, descendientes de Abás y familia política -lejana- de Mahoma. De hecho, se cree que no eran árabes, sino persas conversos, lo cual explica que se hicieran fácilmente con el apoyo de los ciudadanos no árabes de Irán. Con la excusa de que los omeyas se habían alejado del espíritu del Islam, se atrajeron a chiítas y jariyitas, englobando a toda la oposición posible -aunque no hay que decir que, tras el derrocamiento de la dinastía, siguieron enfrentándose a los nuevos califas-.
Los abásidas consolidaron su poder en Jurasán, al noreste de Irán, lejos del poder central, y en 747 comenzaron una revuelta abierta. En 749, el abásida Abu se hizo proclamar califa en Kufa. Al año siguiente derrotaron a los omeyas en Zab, y el califa Marván II fue perseguido y asesinado en Egipto. Liberando todo el rencor acumulado durante cien años, los vencedores ultrajaron las tumbas de los omeyas y asesinaron a los restantes miembros de la familia. Sólo uno se salvó, Abderramán, que huyó a la provincia limítrofe de Córdoba y allí prolongó la dinastía, pero ésa es otra historia.
AÑADIDO 02-04-2008 (versión en español): Si se quiere continuar con la historia del último omeya, Abderramán I emir de Córdoba, recomiendo este artículo del blog Historias de la Historia
martes, marzo 25, 2008
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